The following essay is reproduced with permission. 
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We named him “Squaw”. Not because this squid was the smallest of the 16 in the pool, but because anyone who had the audacity to scoop him up into another tank to study him was likely to get soaked. Squirt was famous for his precise aim.
As a comparative psychologist, I am used to being attacked by experimental subjects. I was stung by a bee, pinched by a crayfish, and mauled by an enraged pigeon. But for some reason, Squirt’s case felt different. He clearly looked like he was plotting against us, as he stared at us with W-shaped pupils.
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Of course I’m anthropomorphizing. Science does not yet have the tools to confirm whether squid have emotional states, whether they are capable of conscious experience, much less an evil conspiracy. But there’s definitely something special about cephalopods, a class of ocean-dwelling invertebrates that includes cuttlefish, cuttlefish, and octopuses.
As researchers learn more about the cognitive abilities of cephalopods, there is a need to treat them in ways that are tailored to their level of intelligence. California and Washington state have both approved bans on octopus farming in 2024. Hawaii is considering similar measures, with a proposal to ban octopus farming and the import of farmed octopus meat submitted to Congress. A proposed octopus farm in Spain’s Canary Islands has sparked opposition from scientists and animal rights activists.
Critics have made a number of arguments against raising octopuses for food, including the potential release of waste, antibiotics, or pathogens from aquaculture facilities. But as a psychologist, I think intelligence is the most interesting part of the equation. How smart are cephalopods really? After all, it’s legal to keep chickens and cows. Is an octopus smarter than, say, a turkey?
large and diverse group
Cephalopods are a wide variety of molluscs that include colloids such as squids, octopuses, and cuttlefish, as well as nautiluses. The size of coleoids varies from just a few millimeters in length in an adult squid (Idiosepius) Giant squid, the largest living invertebrate (architect) and giant squid (Mesonihoteutis) can grow over 40 feet long and weigh over 1,000 pounds.
Some of these species live alone in the nearly featureless darkness of the deep ocean. Some live socially on active, sunny coral reefs. Many are skilled hunters, while others passively feed on floating debris. Because of this vast diversity, cephalopod brains vary widely in size, complexity, and behavior.
Almost everything known about cephalopod cognition comes from intensive studies of just a few species. When considering the welfare of a designated species of octopus in captivity, it is important to note that we are using data collected from distant evolutionary relatives.
Is it possible to measure the intelligence of aliens?
Even in humans, intelligence is incredibly difficult to define and measure. The challenges increase exponentially when studying animals that have senses, motivations, and problem-solving skills that are vastly different from ours.
Historically, researchers have tended to focus on whether animals think like humans and ignore abilities that animals may lack in humans. To get around this problem, scientists have tried to find more objective measures of cognitive ability.
One option is to measure the relative size of the brain and body. The most well-studied species of octopus, octopus vulgaristhere are approximately 500 million neurons. It is relatively large for its small body size and resembles a starling, rabbit, or turkey.
More precise measurements may include the size, number of neurons, and surface area of specific brain structures thought to be important for learning. While this is useful in mammals, the octopus’ nervous system is structured in a completely different way.
More than half of the neurons octopus vulgarisabout 300 million are not present in the brain at all, but are distributed in the “mini-brain” or ganglia of the arms. In brain centers, most of the remaining neurons are dedicated to visual processing, with less than a quarter used for other processes such as learning and memory.
Other species of octopuses have similar general structures, but differ in complexity. Wrinkles and folds in the brain increase surface area and may enhance neural connections and communication. Some species of octopus, particularly those that live in coral reef habitats, have more wrinkled brains than those that live in the deep sea, suggesting that these species may have a high degree of intelligence. Masu.
hold back for a better snack
Because brain structure is not a foolproof measure of intelligence, behavioral tests may provide better evidence. One very complex behavior exhibited by many cephalopods is visual camouflage. They can open and close small pouches just under the skin containing colored pigments and reflectors to reveal specific colors. octopus vulgaris There are up to 150,000 chromatophores, or pigment sacs, in each square inch of skin.
Like many cephalopods, cuttlefish (sepia officinalis) are considered colorblind. However, their excellent vision allows them to create a dizzying array of patterns across their bodies as camouflage. Australian giant squid sepia apamathey use chromophores to communicate, creating patterns that attract mates and alert attackers. This ability is also useful for hunting. Many cephalopods are ambush predators that blend into the background or lure prey.
But learning and memory are hallmarks of intelligent behavior, and there is plenty of evidence that some octopuses and squids learn in ways comparable to how vertebrates learn. dried squid (sepia officinalis), octopus (octopus vulgaris) and Japanese octopus (Tacosianea), learning which images on the screen predict that food will appear, all can form simple associations.
Some cephalopods may be capable of more complex forms of learning, such as reversal learning. This is learning that flexibly adjusts behavior when different stimuli signal a reward. It may also be possible to suppress impulsive reactions. In a 2021 study, when cuttlefish were given a choice between a less-desirable but ready-to-eat snack of crab or a short delay before eating live shrimp, many of the cuttlefish chose to wait for the shrimp.
A new frontier in animal welfare
Given what is known about their brain structure, sensory systems, and learning abilities, it appears that cephalopods as a group may have intelligence similar to that of vertebrate groups. Many societies have animal welfare standards for mice, rats, chickens, and other vertebrates, so it would logically follow that regulations enforcing the humane treatment of cephalopods would apply as well.
These regulations generally specify that when a species is kept in captivity, the conditions in which it is kept must support the animal’s welfare and natural behavior. This opinion has led some U.S. states to ban closed cages for layer hens and crates that are too narrow for pregnant sows to turn around.
Although animal welfare regulations make little mention of invertebrates, guidelines for the care and use of captive cephalopods have begun to emerge over the past decade. In 2010, the European Union made it mandatory to consider ethical issues when using cephalopods in research. And in 2015, AAALAC International, the international accreditation body for ethical animal research, and the European Federation of Laboratory Animal Science Associations promoted guidelines for the care and use of cephalopods in research. The National Institutes of Health is currently considering similar guidelines.
The “alien” minds of octopuses and their relatives are fascinating, especially because they serve as a mirror for us to reflect back to more familiar forms of intelligence. Deciding which species are worthy of moral consideration requires choosing selection criteria such as number of neurons or learning ability.
Once these standards have been set, it may also be helpful to consider how they apply to rodents, birds, and fish, which play more familiar roles in our lives.
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